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Friday, August 14, 2009

从建构主义看改革后的大学英语教学模式

从建构主义看改革后的大学英语教学模式_子虚乌有_新浪博客

从建构主义看改革后的大学英语教学模式(2009-01-31 18:19:54)

吴承义/文

此文部分文字做了处理

论文摘要:根据新近颁布的《大学英语课程教学要求》,新一轮大学英语教学改革拟从教学大纲、教学模式和评价系统三方面着手,其中教学模式改革是此次改革的核心,即建立一个新型的"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"。这一新的教学模式的确立标志着建构主义教学理论将长期指导中国未来的大学英语教学实践。本文首先简单介绍建构主义的由来、主要观点以及在中国的基本情况,接着从建构主义角度解析新模式中的四大基本要素,并结合作者在XX院校的教学实践对新模式在XX院校的实施提出一些建议。

关键词:建构主义 大学英语教学改革 教学模式

一、 引言

根据2004年1月颁布的《大学英语课程教学要求》(以下简称《课程要求》),新一轮大学英语教学改革拟从教学大纲、教学模式和评价系统三方面着手。其中教学模式改革是此次改革的核心,也就是要将现在的"课本+粉笔+黑板+老师讲+学生听"的模式变为"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"。这一新模式的确立标志着建构主义教学理论将长期指导中国未来的大学英语教学实践。本文首先简单介绍建构主义的由来、主要观点以及在中国的基本情况,接着从建构主义角度解析新模式中的四大基本要素,并结合作者在XX院校的教学实践对新模式在XX院校的实施提出一些建议。

二、建构主义理论

(一)教育心理学的"三大主义":行为主义(Behaviorism)、认知主义(Cognitivism)与建构主义(Constructivism)

20世纪以来,随着认知科学的研究和发展,先后出现了不同的学习理论学派,其中曾有三种学习理论对教学和学习产生过较大影响,它们分别是行为主义、认知主义和建构主义。行为主义流行于60年代初至70年代末。行为主义学习理论认为学习起因于外部的刺激,教师的任务是提供外部刺激,学生则是接受刺激。因此行为主义者无视在信息传递过程中学生的理解与心理过程。70年代末至80年代末期间,行为主义让位于认知主义学习理论,认知主义认为,人的认知不是外界刺激直接给予的,而是由外界刺激和认知主体内部心理过程相互作用的结果,因此教师的任务不是简单的向学生灌输知识,而是要首先刺激学生的学习兴趣,学生则是对外界刺激所提供的信息进行选择性加工。

90年代以来的建构主义是认知理论的一个分支,是认知主义的进一步发展。建构主义是当前认知心理学中最为活跃的研究领域,其理论的兴起和发展可谓是教育心理学领域的一场革命。建构主义根源于哲学,一直被应用于社会学和人类学以及认知心理学和教育学。最早提出建构主义的是认知发展领域最有影响的瑞士心理学家皮亚杰(Piaget)。此外,心理学家维果斯基(Vogotsgy)、布鲁纳(Bruner)等人也对建构主义理论的发展做出了重大的贡献。

当今的建构主义者主张:世界是客观存在的,但对于世界的理解和赋予意义却是由每个人自己决定的;知识是个体与外部环境交互作用的结果,人们对事物的理解与个体的先前经验有关,因而对知识正误判断只能是相对的;知识主要不是通过教师传授获得,而是学习者在一定的情景及社会文化背景下,借助他人(包括教师和学习伙伴)的帮助,利用必要的学习资源,通过意义建构的方式而获得的;学习是学习者主动建构内部心理表征的过程,它不仅包括结构性的知识,而且包括大量的非结构性的经验背景;学生是信息加工的主体,是意义的主动建构者,而不是外部刺激的被动接受者和被灌输的对象;教师是意义建构的帮助者、促进者,而不是知识的传播者和灌输者;"情境"、"协作"、"会话"、和"意义建构"是学习环境的四大要素;就教学模式而言,建构主义提倡"以学为中心"、"以学生为中心",从而对传统的"以教为中心"、"以教师为中心"的教学模式提出了挑战。总之,建构主义学习理论的核心用一句话概括就是:以学生为中心,强调学生对知识的主动探索,主动发现和对所学知识意义的主动建构。[1]

2、 建构主义与中国教育

建构主义概念虽是西方人创造的,但就建构主义的理论研究和实践探索来说,中国和西方在步调上相差无几。在90年代前的中国,由于建构主义所主张的学习环境、情境创设和合作学习在现实教学中无法实现,建构主义难以进入实际教学领域,因此对建构主义的研究,仅停留在心理学家对新的学习理论的研究层面上而已。

90年代以后,情况发生了实质性变化。多媒体计算机和网络的出现为建构主义的实现提供了物质基础和技术支持,使得建构主义所倡导的学习环境得以实现,建构主义开始超出纯学习理论的范畴,进入实际教学领域。在研究层面,除了建构主义理论外,针对建构主义在教学领域的应用研究出现了前所未有的高潮[2],涵盖面非常广泛。其中值得一提的是北京师范大学现代教育技术研究所的何克抗教授发表的"建构主义的教学模式、教学方法与教学设计"[3]一文对于建构主义在实际教学中的应用具有很高的参考价值此外还有很多研究涉及教师和学生角色的转换以及建构主义在数学、化学、英语等具体课程教学中的应用等问题。在实践层面,由于一些教师的参与,建构主义逐渐被带入一些大中小学的课堂,不少教师正在探索如何在实际教学中实施建构主义的教学模式。总之,建构主义在中国教育界受到了空前的关注。

然而,就建构主义在大学公共英语教学领域而言,目前的总体状况是"文章多,实践少"。大学英语教学目前尚处在由传统的"行为主义时代"向"建构主义时代"的过渡期,真正的"建构主义时代"还未到来,因为一方面,懂得建构主义理论的教师很少,另一方面,懂得建构主义教学模式操作的教师更为稀缺[4]

三、建构主义与新型大学英语教学模式

当前大学英语教学改革的关键在于能否打破传统的"书本+黑板+老师讲+学生听"的教学模式。为此,教育部最近颁发了《课程要求》,正式确立了一种崭新的教学模式:"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"。这意味着大学英语教学将"从以教师为中心、单纯传授语言知识和技能的教学模式,向以学生为中心、既传授一般的语言知识与技能,更加注重培养语言运用能力和自主学习能力的教学模式转变"。[5]

从基本属性上来说,"书本+黑板+老师讲+学生听"的传统教学模式是属于行为主义的,而"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"则是属于建构主义的。《课程要求》对此新教学模式只作了一些框架性的粗线条描述,并针对新模式的具体实施提供了两个图示【图一和图二】。笔者认为,这不足以帮助我们真正认识新模式,认清新模式本质的关键在于对其中涉及的教师、学生、教材、教学媒体四大基本要素进行建构主义解析。

1、 关于学生

根据建构主义学习理论,学习者不再是知识的被动接受者,而是知识的主动建构者,外界施加的信息只有通过学习者的主动建构才能变成自身的知识。教学不是知识的传递(transmission),而是知识的处理( transaction )和转换(transformation)[6]

教学模式改革成功的一个重要标志就是学生个性化学习方法的形成和学生自主学习能力的发展。基于计算机的多媒体教学为真正意义上的个性化学习和自主学习提供了可能。新教学模式能使学生自主选择适合自己需要的材料进行学习,能够弥补传统课堂听说训练的不足,能够随时记录、了解、检测学生的学习情况以及教师的教学与辅导情况,从而能督促学生积极学习,促使学生的英语听说能力与其他应用能力有较快提高。学生可以在任何地点,任何时候开展学习。学生需要学多少时间就可学习多少时间,并且可以按自己的水平和需要,自由选择不同的级别和水平的学习材料,可以自己设定目标,可以通过自测反馈信息,立即知道自己的学习结果,发现问题,以及时调整自己的学习难度和进度。[7]

《课程要求》附件一所提供的图二说明的就是学生基于计算机的英语学习过程。在这个学习过程中,学生需要从以下几个方面发挥其"主体作用":要用探索法、发现法去建构知识的意义;在建构意义过程中要主动去搜集并分析有关的信息和资料,对所学习的问题要提出各种假设并努力加以验证;要把当前学习内容尽量和自己已经知道的内容相联系,并对这种联系加以认真的思考。"联系"与"思考"是意义构建的关键。当然,如果能把联系与思考的过程与协作学习中的协商过程(即交流、讨论的过程)结合起来,则学生建构意义的效率会更高、质量会更好。

2、 关于教师

由于大多数教师都习惯于传统的客观主义教学模式,因此成为一名建构主义教师可能并非易事。要实现这种转变,"必须进行范式的转变","必须主动放弃熟悉的见解和做法,并采纳新的见解和做法。"[8]. 教师是教学过程的组织者、指导者、意义建构的帮助者、促进者。教师的作用从传统的传递知识的权威转变为学生学习的辅导者,成为学生学习的高级伙伴或合作者。

在这种模式中,教师可以更好地发挥其"主导作用",具体体现在教师利用多媒体精心设计教学、组织教学、积极从事创造性的教学活动,为学生主动学习创造更多的机会。教师利用CAI课件和精选的网上教学资源设计自己的教学内容,利用计算机和各种音视频设备呈现教学内容,将较为抽象的、较难理解的内容具体化、形象化。这样可使学生易于接受,同时为学生创设了真实自然的语言学习环境,大大激发学生的学习兴趣,调动他们的学习积极性;同时又使学生积极主动参与教学活动,和老师、同学进行交流并进行相互提问,由被动学习转为主动学习。

在图二所示的基于计算机的英语学习过程中,"应重视教师的面授辅导作用,教师的面授辅导应以小组为主。原则上每组学生不应超过8人。辅导内容应以检查学生的自学效果为主,并根据学生的学习效果决定学生是否可以继续学习。辅导以小组进行,学生每学习16~20学时,教师应给予1学时的辅导。"[9]

在这种新的教学模式中,如果忽视了教师作用的发挥,那么这种教学必定会失败:学生的学习将会成为没有目标的盲目探索,讨论交流将成为不着边际的漫谈,意义建构将会事倍功半,花费很多时间,不得要领,甚至可能钻进牛角尖。在以学为中心的教学设计中教师只是由场上的"主演"改变为场外的"指导"(主演改由学生担任),教师对学生的直接灌输减少了甚至取消了,但教师的启发、引导作用和事先的准备工作、组织工作都大大增加,所以对教师的作用不应有丝毫的忽视。[10]

3、 关于教材

目前正处于试点阶段的大学英语教学改革所试用的全新学习系统的教材包括清华大学出版社的"新时代交互英语"教学系统、高等教育出版社的"大学体验英语"教学系统、外语教学与研究出版社的"新视野大学英语"教学系统和上海外语教育出版社的"新理念大学英语"教学系统。与传统教材相比,这四套新教材所提供的知识不再是教师传授的内容,而是学生主动建构意义的对象,因为它们具有一些与建构主义理论相适应的新特点。

首先,在载体上,新教材拥有课本、光盘和网络课程三种不同的载体[11],真正实现了教材的立体化。教材的立体化同步推出,有助于拓宽教学内容,使教学内容可以从课本开始,通过网络媒介延伸到多元化的信息世界;有助于教师对教与学的思维转变和手段更新,使"灌注式教学"能逐步演化到自主选择、参与式的教学;还可有助于教学模式的转变,既可以实现由教师现场指导的实时同步学习,也可以实现在教学计划指导下的非实时自学,还可以实现通过使用电子邮件、网上讨论区、网络电话等手段的小组合作型学习等。

其次,在设计上,新教材集课堂教学和网络教学的双重优点于一身。新教材不仅包括教学内容的传输,还有学生学业管理模块;不仅跟踪学生的学与练的过程,还自动记录学习的情况,提供平时学习成绩的查询。网络课程还为教师提供了试题库和实施考试的工具和环境,充分利用网络实时和异时交互的工具,在网络课件内设置了网上讨论区和电子邮件列表系统,使学生在教材网站上方便快捷的实施互动交流,开展小组合作型学习。然而网络教学只是对课堂教学的延伸、补充和加强,绝对不是对课堂教学的取代。面对面的课堂教学仍然是师生交互的重要手段,只不过教师应当适当减少内容的重复讲解,同时加强面授形式的课堂教学和辅导。

再者,在内容上,兼顾基本教学内容与教学内容的拓宽。新教材的网络课程提供了详尽的教学内容,包括了传统教学模式中最基本的东西,还提供了网上工具,便于教师自行制作教案或修改网络已提供的教案,丰富和完善教学内容。此外,还提供了与课文内容相关的网站,为学生提供了个性化学习的空间。然而教师应以基本教学内容作为教学的主要战场。

4、 关于媒体

这里所说的媒体其实是指教学环境。根据图一,新型教学模式中的媒体或教学环境显然包括计算机和课堂两个部分,这一点从新模式的名称"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"中也可看出。

其中的计算机可以是单机或网络,而网络可以是局域网、校园网或互联网。基于计算机的媒体在技术上可以体现交互性、可实现性和易于操作性。根据《课程要求》,"各高等学校应充分利用多媒体和网络技术,采用新的教学模式改进原来的以教师讲授为主的单一课堂教学模式"。新的教学模式"应以现代信息技术,特别是网络技术为支撑,使英语教学不受时间和地点的限制,朝着个性化学习、自主式学习方向发展。"

新教学模式在充分利用现代信息技术的同时,也没有抛弃现有教学模式中的优秀部分,而是适当保留了基于课堂的教学环境。《课程要求》建议"各高等学校应根据自身的条件和学生情况,设计出适合本校情况的基于单机或局域网以及校园网的多媒体听说教学模式,有条件的学校也可直接在互联网上进行听说教学和训练。读写译课程的教学既可在课堂进行,也可在计算机上进行。但是,无论是上机学习,还是课堂学习,都应安排足够的教师进行指导或讲授。"[12] 在新模式中,课堂教学的开展要注意以下几点:一是课堂教学应与教学软件在进度上基本上要相配合。二是要分类指导。要针对不同层次的学生分班讲授不同的内容。三是大班授课与小班辅导结合。阅读理解、语法、写作和翻译技巧都可以大班授课,小班辅导。大班解决大的问题,小班解决个性化的问题。四是要缩减课时,无论大班还是小班教学,都应减少课时量,要把更多的时间留给学生。

在新模式中,基于计算机的新型媒体和基于课堂的传统媒体相互补充,相互配合,相得益彰。这种新的复合型媒体已不再是帮助教师传授知识的手段、方法,而是用来创设情境、进行协作学习和会话交流,即作为学生主动学习、协作式探索的认知工具,是教师和学生、学生和学生、学生与教材接触和互动的场所,是教和学的理想环境。

总之,在这种"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"中,学生是认知主体,是知识意义的主动建构者,起主体作用;教师是教学过程的组织者、指导者、意义建构的帮助者、促进者,其主导作用;教材所提供的知识不再是教师传授的内容,而是学生主动建构意义的对象;媒体也不再是帮助教师传授知识的手段、方法,而是用来创设情境、进行协作学习和会话交流,即作为学生主动学习、协作式探索的认知工具。与传统模式相比,在这种新模式中,教师、学生、教材和媒体四要素各自有完全不同的作用,彼此之间有完全不同的关系,完美地体现了建构主义教学理论,有利于教学效率的提高。

四、新模式在XX院校中的实施:几条建议

不同的理论,在不同的学习环境下、针对不同的教学对象都有成功的案例,但每一种理论又都不具备普适性。新的建构主义大学英语教学模式也不例外。与传统模式相比,新模式具有不可比拟的优势,但它并非灵丹妙药。此次大学英语教学改革在实施过程中出现漏洞和问题也是必然的。从某种意义上说,教学模式实施的过程,就是发现问题和解决问题的过程。而对于新模式的实施而言,研究其潜在问题比探讨其潜在优势似乎更有指导意义。

XX院校大学英语教学是全国大学英语教学的一部分,因此XX内外院校的大学英语教学改革既有共性的一面,也有差异的一面。针对新模式在XX院校的实施,在此笔者拟结合XX院校的特殊性提出几条建议以供参考。

1、网络教学不是课堂教学的取代。

新模式既包括了网络教学,也包括了课堂教学,但是必须处理好二者之间的关系。网络教学只是对课堂教学的延伸、补充和加强,绝对不是对课堂教学的简单取代。要避免唯技术论,唯网络论。"大学英语课程的设计要同时发挥传统课堂教学的优势,鼓励优秀教师讲授适宜于课堂教学的课程,与基于网络和计算机教学的课程相结合。"[13]因此,面对面的课堂教学仍然是师生交互的重要手段,课堂在新教学模式中仍有重要作用。课堂上讲语法,讲阅读理解,讲写作,讲翻译技巧。可以有不同的教材和多种参考书,也可以大班讲课,因为不需要练习听说。计算机软件主要解决听说,特别是听的问题。当然计算机软件也可以辅助地解决语法和阅读理解问题,还有一些英语文化知识问题,也可以通过计算机软件来解决。学生可以通过计算机软件根据自己的基础和需要,以及自己的时间等有选择性和针对性地学习,从而达到学习的个性化和时间、地点的自由化,减少课堂学习时间,提高学习兴趣。

新的教学模式应是将上机学习与课堂学习有机地结合,而不是机器取代教师的问题。以现代信息技术,特别是网络技术为支撑的教学方式,有利于英语教学朝着不受时间和地点限制的学习方向发展,有利于学生主动地学习,有利于确立学生在教学过程中的主体地位。而课堂教学以及教师的辅导则具有面对面交流、富于情感、更有针对性地组织教学、更好地互动等特点。两者各有所长,各有优势。我们应该积极地将两方面的长处恰当地组合起来,做到优势互补,设计出适合本校情况的新的教学模式。

2、个性化学习不等于无约束学习,主动学习不等于不去学习。

在建构主义教学模式中,学生享有更多的管理自己学习的机会。在没有教师的情况下,学生必须学会自主安排学习时间,学会独立使用多种媒体网络教学资源,学会选择适合于自己的学习材料,制定适合自己水平的学习计划。这种自主学习过程有助于激发他们的学习潜能,提高发现问题、解决问题的能力,从而形成有效的学习方法,提高自主学习的能力。

但是这种模式中却隐藏着一种风险:即如果没有有力的监督和管理机制,对于部分学生而言,个性化的学习很可能会变成无约束的学习,甚至主动学习可能会变成不学习。网络学习过程中,学生处在一个比较纷乱的网络环境下,容易受到与当前学习无关的额外信息干扰。而且学生单独学习,缺乏同学间的交流,这些都是可能出现的问题。美国有一项关于远程教育教学质量的统计报告已经显示,远程教育的学生明显呈现两极分化的现象[14]。这说明缺乏教师的直接指导,一些学生会滥用所享有的自由和主动,导致学习效果下降。

所以,不能盲目相信学生自我管理的意愿和能力,学校教务部门和老师必须通过课堂活动和课外活动的记录、网上自学记录、学习档案记录等形式对学生的学习过程进行观察、评估和监督,促进学生有效的学习。基于计算机的英语学习还要有相应的检查、辅导和规范的管理机制。要有辅导老师负责进行学习过程管理和答疑辅导。新的管理机制的建立和好坏将是决定新教学模式成败的关键。在学生管理方面,XX院校向来都有着更完整、更规范的制度和做法,这是XX院校相对于地方院校的优势,应该继续发扬,而不应该随意放弃。

3、教师素质是关系改革能否成功的最关键因素。

新模式改革需要高校在硬件和软件建设方面加大投入的力度。硬件建设是指提供新模式运营所需的校园网和计算机;软件建设是指培训出胜任建构主义教学的大学英语师资。硬件和软件的建设虽然应该并重,但是培养英语师资才是重中之重,应将资金主要投放到这里。学校要重视外语任课教师的重新培训问题,因为新教学模式能否取得成功,在很大程度上取决于教师的认识能否到位。教师要从以教师为主转变到以学生为主、为学生学习提供服务的角色上来,主动适应新的教学模式和推广新模式。当前亟待解决的问题是教师因不了解网络技术、不会使用计算机、不了解网络环境中的学生特点,以往的教学经验已不完全适用,教学内容和教学思想不能表达到位,使学生学习效果下降。

在大学英语师资建设方面,XX院校已经有了一些宝贵经验。比如,XXXWY学院每年都举办一个全X外语师资培训班,学员是来自全X各高校的英语教研室的现职教师。这个培训班对于提升他们的英语教学水平意义重大,一方面他们有机会聆听作为全X外语教学核心的外语学院的资深专家的最新研究成果,现场观摩高水平的示范课;另一方面,这也是他们和来自XX其他院校的同行交流的场所。这样一来,借助XXXWY学院的龙头作用,全X大学英语教师的理论水平和教学能力都将能与时俱进。

4、XX院校大学英语教学模式改革应该体现XX特色。

鉴于我国高校的教育资源、学生入学水平和所面临的社会需求都不尽相同,《课程要求》只是指导性的,它赋予了各校因校制宜、各地因地制宜的一个非常大的空间,而不再搞"一刀切"。

为此,XX院校首先应该在《课程要求》的基础上,综合考虑生源情况、学生英语水平、师资力量、学校定位以及国防需要等因素之后,再来制订本校的大学英语教学大纲、课程设置。另外,如前文所提,除基本教学内容外,新模式还为教学内容的拓宽提供了可能。因此XX院校大学英语教师在自行制作教案过程中可自行加入适合本校学生的X事英语素材,以体现英语教育的X事特色。

在大学英语教学的XX特色问题上,有两个因素不可忽略:一是XXXWY学院的核心龙头作用。作为全X外语教育的基地,XXXWY学院在XX英语教学的科研和实践层面都享有无可争议的优势,可起示范作用。二是XX院校协作中心外语协作组组长联席会的组织协调作用,有利于优化XX院校现有的大学英语教学资源。

五、结语

《课程要求》的颁布标志着建构主义在中国大学英语教学领域指导理论地位的正式确立, "以教为中心"、"以教师为中心"的传统教学模式也必将为 "以学为中心"、"以学生为中心"的建构主义教学模式所取代。但是一切都才刚刚开始,现在就欢呼建构主义时代的到来还为时尚早,这将是一个漫长的过程。

作为全国大学英语教学的一部分,XX院校应该同地方高校一起,关注新模式在实施过程中出现的新问题,探索新问题的对策,并加强X内外院校的经验交流,从而推动大学英语教学改革目标的实现。


[1] 本文此处关于建构主义理论的观点,来自下列文献:张建伟、陈琦:"从认知主义到建构主义",《北京师范大学学报》(社科版),1996年第4期;李三虎:"当代西方建构主义研究述评",《国外社会科学》,1997年 05期;张祖忻:"建构主义学习理论与教学原则",《开放教育研究》,1997年 06期;David H. Jonassen, A Model for Designing Constructivist Learning Environment, Proceedings of ICCE97, 1997.12;Von Glasersfeld, E.(1995), A Constructivist Approach to Teaching. In: L. P. Steffe & J. Gale(ed.), Constructivism in education(p.3-15). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers;Merill, M. D. (1991) Constructivism and Instructional Design, In Duffy, T. M. & Jonassen, D. H. (Eds.), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation. (pp.99-114). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

[2] 据笔者2004年10月17日在中国知网(CNKI)《中国学术期刊全文数据库》的检索结果显示,1994年至200410月,中国大陆境内公开发表关于"建构主义"学习理论的论文就达874篇之多。

[4]A Survey of CALL Theory and Application of English Teachers in the Context of Modern Distance Education By Peng Weiqiang (Guangdong RTVU Guangzhou China),《电大快讯英语》,2004年第二期,来自http://www.open.edu.cn/elt/6/5.htm 。根据文章作者的调查,受查对象普遍对自己的理论知识不满意,半数以上的人感觉对教育理论尤其是建构主义理论知之甚少。

[5] 见《课程要求》。

[6] Chang-Wells, G. L. M. & Wells, G. (1993). Dynamics of Discourse: Literacy and the Construction of Knowledge. In: Forman, E. A., Minick, N. & Stone, C. A.(ed.). Contexts for Learning: Social-cultural Dynamics in Children' s Development (p.58-90). New York: Oxford University Press.

[7] 四川大学外国语学院的做法值得借鉴。他们在校内建了3个学生自主学习中心,从早上8点一直开到晚上10点,学生可以随时去。在这个自主学习中心里面,有BBC、VOA等经过我们录制的放在网上的材料。同时,学生可以做课程的复习,可以做4、6级考试。

[8] Brooks, J.G. and Brooks, M.G.. Alexandria, VA (1993) Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. p25.

[9] 见《课程要求》。

[10] 何克抗:"建构主义学习环境下的教学设计",来自www.itedu.net.cn

[11] 这三种载体既可选择使用,也可组合使用。可选择的方式有:课本+音带(适用于传统的教学方法);课本+光盘(适用于能提供计算机的院校或能使用计算机的学生);课本+网络课程(适用于具有网络服务条件的学校或具备上网条件的学生)。

[12] 见《课程要求》。

[13] 见《课程要求》。

[14] 冯霞:"掌握网络传播特点保证网络教学质量",来自中国人民大学现代远程教育网(http://www.cmr.com.cn/distance/wangluo/001.htm)。

Thursday, August 13, 2009

基于建构主义教学理论的大学英语教学模式

基于建构主义教学理论的大学英语教学模式_子虚乌有_新浪博客
(2009-01-31 18:01:07)

吴承义/文

此文曾发表于《中美英语教学》2005月8月

摘要:根据最新颁布的《大学英语课程教学要求》,新一轮大学英语教学改革的核心任务是要建立一个"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式",这一新的大学英语教学模式的理论基础是建构主义教学理论。本文在简单介绍建构主义主要观点的基础上解析这一建构主义教学模式的基本要素,并对它的实施提出几条建议。

关键词:建构主义 大学英语 教学改革 教学模式

一、引言

根据2004年1月颁布的《大学英语课程教学要求》(以下简称《课程要求》),新一轮大学英语教学改革主要集中在教学大纲、教学模式和评价系统三个方面,其中教学模式改革是此次改革的核心,也就是要建立一个"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"。这一新的大学英语教学模式的理论基础是建构主义教学理论。本文在简单介绍建构主义主要观点的基础上解析这一建构主义教学模式的基本要素,并对它的实施提出几条建议。

二、建构主义教学理论

90年代以来的建构主义(Constructivism)是认知主义(Cognitivism)理论的一个分支,是认知主义的进一步发展。建构主义是当前认知心理学中最为活跃的研究领域,其理论的兴起和发展可谓是教育心理学领域的一场革命。建构主义根源于哲学,一直被应用于社会学和人类学以及认知心理学和教育学。最早提出建构主义的是认知发展领域最有影响的瑞士心理学家皮亚杰(Piaget)。此外,心理学家维果斯基(Vogotsgy)、布鲁纳(Bruner)等人也对建构主义理论的发展做出了重大的贡献。

当今的建构主义者主张:世界是客观存在的,但对于世界的理解和赋予意义却是由每个人自己决定的;知识是个体与外部环境交互作用的结果,人们对事物的理解与个体的先前经验有关,因而对知识正误判断只能是相对的;知识主要不是通过教师传授获得,而是学习者在一定的情景及社会文化背景下,借助他人(包括教师和学习伙伴)的帮助,利用必要的学习资源,通过意义建构的方式而获得的;学习是学习者主动建构内部心理表征的过程,它不仅包括结构性的知识,而且包括大量的非结构性的经验背景;学生是信息加工的主体,是意义的主动建构者,而不是外部刺激的被动接受者和被灌输的对象;教师是意义建构的帮助者、促进者,而不是知识的传播者和灌输者;"情境"、"协作"、"会话"、和"意义建构"是学习环境的四大要素;就教学模式而言,建构主义提倡"以学为中心"、"以学生为中心",从而对传统的"以教为中心"、"以教师为中心"的教学模式提出了挑战。总之,建构主义学习理论的核心用一句话概括就是:以学生为中心,强调学生对知识的主动探索,主动发现和对所学知识意义的主动建构。(张建伟、陈琦,1996;李三虎,1997;张祖忻,1997)

三、大学英语教学模式的理论基础:建构主义

当前大学英语教学改革的目的在于打破传统的"书本+黑板+老师讲+学生听"的教学模式,同时建立一个新的"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"。从基本属性上来说,前者是行为主义的,而后者则是建构主义的。《课程要求》对这一新的教学模式只作了一些粗线条的描述,并针对新模式的具体实施提供了两个图示【见《课程要求》附录一】。但是笔者认为,《课程要求》中的相关内容尚不足以让人真正认清新模式的面目,因此有必要从建构主义角度来解剖新模式中的教师、学生、教材、教学媒体等四大基本要素。

1、 学生

根据建构主义学习理论,学习者不再是知识的被动接受者,而是知识的主动建构者,外界施加的信息只有通过学习者的主动建构才能变成自身的知识。教学不是知识的传递(transmission),而是知识的处理( transaction )和转换(transformation)。(Chang-Wells et al, 1993)

教学模式改革成功的一个重要标志就是学生个性化学习方法的形成和学生自主学习能力的发展。基于计算机的多媒体教学为真正意义上的个性化学习和自主学习提供了可能。《课程要求》附件一所提供的图二说明的便是学生基于计算机的英语学习过程。在这个学习过程中,学生需要从以下几个方面发挥其"主体作用":要用探索法、发现法去建构知识的意义;在建构意义过程中要主动去搜集并分析有关的信息和资料,对所学习的问题要提出各种假设并努力加以验证;要把当前学习内容尽量和自己已经知道的内容相联系,并对这种联系加以认真的思考。"联系"与"思考"是意义构建的关键。当然,如果能把联系与思考的过程与协作学习中的协商过程(即交流、讨论的过程)结合起来,则学生建构意义的效率会更高、质量会更好。

2、 教师

由于大多数教师都习惯于传统的客观主义教学模式,因此成为一名建构主义教师可能并非易事。要实现这种转变,"必须进行范式的转变","必须主动放弃熟悉的见解和做法,并采纳新的见解和做法。". 教师是教学过程的组织者、指导者、意义建构的帮助者、促进者。教师的作用从传统的传递知识的权威转变为学生学习的辅导者,成为学生学习的高级伙伴或合作者。

在图二所示的基于计算机的英语学习过程中,应重视教师的面授辅导作用,教师的面授辅导应以小组为主。原则上每组学生不应超过8人。辅导内容应以检查学生的自学效果为主,并根据学生的学习效果决定学生是否可以继续学习。辅导以小组进行,学生每学习16-20学时,教师应给予1学时的辅导。

在这种新的教学模式中,如果忽视了教师作用的发挥,那么这种教学必定会失败:学生的学习将会成为没有目标的盲目探索,讨论交流将成为不着边际的漫谈,意义建构将会事倍功半,花费很多时间,不得要领,甚至可能钻进牛角尖。在以学为中心的教学设计中教师只是由场上的"主演"改变为场外的"指导"(主演改由学生担任),教师对学生的直接灌输减少了甚至取消了,但教师的启发、引导作用和事先的准备工作、组织工作都大大增加,所以对教师的作用不应有丝毫的忽视。

3、 教材

目前正处于试点阶段的大学英语教学改革所试用的全新学习系统的教材包括清华大学出版社的"新时代交互英语"教学系统、高等教育出版社的"大学体验英语"教学系统、外语教学与研究出版社的"新视野大学英语"教学系统和上海外语教育出版社的"新理念大学英语"教学系统。与传统教材相比,这四套新教材所提供的知识不再是教师传授的内容,而是学生主动建构意义的对象,它们都具有一些建构主义理论的新特点。

首先,在载体上,新教材拥有课本、光盘和网络课程三种不同的载体,真正实现了教材的立体化。教材的立体化同步推出,有助于拓宽教学内容,使教学内容可以从课本开始,通过网络媒介延伸到多元化的信息世界;有助于教师对教与学的思维转变和手段更新,使"灌注式教学"能逐步演化到自主选择、参与式的教学;还可有助于教学模式的转变,既可以实现由教师现场指导的实时同步学习,也可以实现在教学计划指导下的非实时自学,还可以实现通过使用电子邮件、网上讨论区、网络电话等手段的小组合作型学习等。

其次,在设计上,新教材集课堂教学和网络教学的双重优点于一身。新教材不仅包括教学内容的传输,还有学生学业管理模块;不仅跟踪学生的学与练的过程,还自动记录学习的情况,提供平时学习成绩的查询。网络课程还为教师提供了试题库和实施考试的工具和环境,充分利用网络实时和异时交互的工具,在网络课件内设置了网上讨论区和电子邮件列表系统,使学生在教材网站上方便快捷的实施互动交流,开展小组合作型学习。然而网络教学只是对课堂教学的延伸、补充和加强,绝对不是对课堂教学的取代。面对面的课堂教学仍然是师生交互的重要手段,只不过教师应当适当减少内容的重复讲解,同时加强面授形式的课堂教学和辅导。

再者,在内容上,兼顾基本教学内容与教学内容的拓宽。新教材的网络课程提供了详尽的教学内容,包括了传统教学模式中最基本的东西,还提供了网上工具,便于教师自行制作教案或修改网络已提供的教案,丰富和完善教学内容。此外,还提供了与课文内容相关的网站,为学生提供了个性化学习的空间。然而教师应以基本教学内容作为教学的主要战场。

4、 媒体

这里所说的媒体其实是指教学环境。根据图一,新的教学模式中的媒体或教学环境显然包括计算机和课堂两个部分,这一点从新模式的名称"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"中也可看出。

其中的计算机可以是单机或网络,而网络可以是局域网、校园网或互联网。基于计算机的媒体在技术上可以体现交互性、可实现性和易于操作性。《课程要求》要求"各高等学校应充分利用多媒体和网络技术,采用新的教学模式改进原来的以教师讲授为主的单一课堂教学模式"。然而新教学模式在充分利用现代信息技术的同时,也没有抛弃现有教学模式中的优秀部分,而是适当保留了基于课堂的教学环境。比如《课程要求》就建议"读写译课程的教学既可在课堂进行,也可在计算机上进行。但是,无论是上机学习,还是课堂学习,都应安排足够的教师进行指导或讲授。"

在新模式中,基于计算机的新型媒体和基于课堂的传统媒体相互补充,相互配合,相得益彰。这种新的复合型媒体已不再是帮助教师传授知识的手段、方法,而是用来创设情境、进行协作学习和会话交流,即作为学生主动学习、协作式探索的认知工具,是教师和学生、学生和学生、学生与教材接触和互动的场所,是教和学的理想环境。

四、对新模式实施的几条建议

与传统模式相比,新模式具有不可比拟的优势,但它并非灵丹妙药。就新模式的实施而言,研究其潜在问题与探讨其潜在优势具有同样重要的意义。

1、网络教学不是课堂教学的取代。

新的教学模式应是将上机学习与课堂学习有机地结合,而不是机器取代教师的问题。以现代信息技术,特别是网络技术为支撑的教学方式,有利于英语教学朝着不受时间和地点限制的学习方向发展,有利于学生主动地学习,有利于确立学生在教学过程中的主体地位。而课堂教学以及教师的辅导则具有面对面交流、富于情感、更有针对性地组织教学、更好地互动等特点。两者各有所长,各有优势。我们应该积极地将两方面的长处恰当地组合起来,做到优势互补,设计出适合本校情况的新的教学模式。

2、个性化学习不等于无约束学习,主动学习不等于不去学习。

在建构主义教学模式中,学生享有更多的管理自己学习的机会。但是这种模式中却隐藏着一种风险:即如果没有有力的监督和管理机制,对于部分学生而言,个性化的学习很可能会变成无约束的学习,甚至主动学习可能会变成不学习。网络学习过程中,学生处在一个比较纷乱的网络环境下,容易受到与当前学习无关的额外信息干扰。而且学生单独学习,缺乏同学间的交流,这些都是可能出现的问题。美国有一项关于远程教育教学质量的统计报告已经显示,远程教育的学生明显呈现两极分化的现象。(冯霞,2001)这说明缺乏教师的直接指导,一些学生会滥用所享有的自由和主动,导致学习效果下降。所以,不能盲目相信学生自我管理的意愿和能力,学校教务部门和老师必须通过课堂活动和课外活动的记录、网上自学记录、学习档案记录等形式对学生的学习过程进行观察、评估和监督,促进学生有效的学习。

3、教师素质的高低将最终决定教学模式改革能否成功。

新模式改革需要高校在硬件和软件建设方面加大投入的力度。硬件建设是指提供新模式运营所需的校园网和计算机;软件建设是指培训出能够胜任新的教学模式的大学英语师资。硬件和软件的建设虽然应该并重,但是培养英语师资才是重中之重,应将足够的资金投放到这里。学校要重视英语教师的在职培训,因为新教学模式能否取得成功,在很大程度上取决于教师。教师要从以教师为主转变到以学生为主、为学生学习提供服务的角色上来,主动适应新的教学模式。

五、结束语

总之,在这一以建构主义为理论基础的"基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式"中,学生是认知主体,是知识意义的主动建构者,起主体作用;教师是教学过程的组织者、指导者、意义建构的帮助者、促进者,其主导作用;教材所提供的知识不再是教师传授的内容,而是学生主动建构意义的对象;媒体也不再是帮助教师传授知识的手段、方法,而是用来创设情境、进行协作学习和会话交流,即作为学生主动学习、协作式探索的认知工具。与传统模式相比,新模式将有利于教学效率的提高,但是在实践中也一定会出现诸多问题,有待于我们进一步研究。

参考文献:

1. 张建伟、陈琦. 从认知主义到建构主义. 北京师范大学学报(社科版). 1996(4).

2. 李三虎. 当代西方建构主义研究述评. 国外社会科学. 1997(5).

3. 张祖忻. 建构主义学习理论与教学原则. 开放教育研究. 1997(6).

4. Chang-Wells et al. Dynamics of Discourse: Literacy and the Construction of Knowledge. In: Forman, E. A. et al (ed.). Contexts for Learning: Social-cultural Dynamics in Children' s Development. New York: Oxford University Press. 1993.

5. 冯霞. 掌握网络传播特点保证网络教学质量. 中国人民大学现代远程教育网(http://www.cmr.com.cn/distance/wangluo/001.htm). 2001.

Wednesday, August 12, 2009

The Online Plain Text English Dictionary

The Online Plain Text English Dictionary

OPTED is a public domain English word list dictionary, based on the public domain portion of "The Project Gutenberg Etext of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary" which is in turn based on the 1913 US Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. (See Project Gutenburg)

This version has been extensively stripped down and set out as one definition per line. All the Gutenburg EText tags and formatting have been removed by computer. Version 0.03 is a new processing of v0.47 of the websters dictionary and it has considerably fewer errors. Also the definition limit of 255 chars has been removed to give full justice of some of the more majestic of the originals. Some important errors in the parts-of-speech fields have been corrected and a lot of inflections/ alternatives and plurals that were missed due to software bugs in v0.01 and 0.02 are now included properly.

The dictionary is set as a word list with definitions, using minimal HTML markup. The only tags used are <P>, <B> and <I> and these serve to delimit the words (between <B>s) the part of speech or type (between <I>s) and the definitions (The rest of the line). Each entry is between a <P>, </P> pair. This will facilitate computer processing. The text was prepared on a macintosh, so the few accented and umlauted characters appear best if your browser is set to Western MacRoman encoding (this should look like an umlauted u : ü). If this causes problems and I get enough responses, I'll look into producing an ISO 8859-1 or even a Unicode version.

The dictionary can be viewed (with patience) directly online as you would a normal printed dictionary, otherwise a user can download the pages and process them in some way on their own machine. The only usage conditions are that if the material is redistributed, the content (not the formatting) remain in the public domain (ie free) and that the content be easily accessible in non-encoded plain text format at no cost to the end user. The origin of the content should also be acknowledged, including OPTED, Project Gutenburg and the 1913 edition of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. If the material is to be included in commercial products, Project Gutenburg should be contacted first. There are no restrictions for personal or research uses of this material.

OPTED v0.03 by Letter(size)

Second computer generated version:

A(1.1M) | B(1005k) | C(1.6M) | D(1M) | E(809k) | F(784k) | G(564k) | H(686k) | I(833k) | J(172k) | K(172k) | L(637k) | M(931k) | N(343k) | O(466k) | P(1.5M) | Q(147k) | R(931k) | S(2.1M) | T(1005k) | U(343k) | V(343k) | W(490k) | X(49k) | Y(74k) | Z(74k)

OPTED v0.03 by Archive

OPTED v0.03can also be downloaded as a large stuffit/binhex encoded archive. (7.1MB/ 19.1M unpacked)

Recharging Laptops, Netbooks, Gadgets Abroad

Recharging Laptops, Netbooks, Gadgets Abroad

James A. Martin
Click here to find out more!

August 12, 2009 (PC World) Traveling within the U.S. can be stressful and expensive. When it's time to dig out your passport, there's no telling what will happen (other than you'll wish you hadn't had your passport photo taken at Walgreens). Packing a laptop and other gear doesn't make international travel any simpler, either.

So, to make your upcoming globetrot a bit easier, this week I'll focus on what you need to know about recharging electronics abroad. Next week: using your mobile phone overseas.

Get Ready to Adapt

You'll need a power plug adapter specific to the country or region you'll be visiting. The adapter has just one job: to fit a two- or three-prong power cord plug from North America into a wall socket outside the continent that would otherwise reject it.

If you'll be traveling to multiple countries, try Kensington's $20 Travel Plug adapter. The adapter enables you to plug in one device in over 150 countries.

Otherwise, just buy one or two adapters (depending on how many gadgets you're packing) specific to the country you're visiting. Single-plug adapters are cheaper (about $5 to $6 each) and more compact than universal adapters like Kensington's Travel Plug adapter. The World Electric Guide will help you figure out which adapter you need. Magellan's is a good source for adapters and other travel accessory needs.

Tip: To minimize the number of adapters you'll need, and to simultaneously power your netbook and a USB device, consider Kensington's Power Adapter for Netbooks. It can recharge a variety of netbooks (using interchangeable tips) and also has a USB port.

Kensington's Power Adapter for Netbooks is a bit pricey (about $50 online), but it's less costly than the iGo series of power adapters, which also let you simultaneously charge a laptop and another device. The iGo products for laptops and other gadgets start around $60, but they also include adapters for airline seats and vehicle power outlets (which the Kensington device lacks). As a bonus, you could keep either the Kensington or iGo products stored in your laptop bag, so you won't have to remember to pack your laptop or netbook power cord before each trip.

Given that current in some countries is, shall we say, dicey, you might consider traveling with a portable, universal surge protector. Targus Mini Mobile Surge Protectors are truly tiny, come in two- and three-prong versions, cost about $19 each, and work on 110-230 voltage systems. Keep in mind you'd still need a plug adapter to use one of these surge protectors overseas.

You Probably Won't Need to Convert

Aside from plug adapters, it's extremely unlikely you'll need a power converter, also known as a Switched Mode Power Supply, for your gadgets.

Converters regulate and stabilize electrical current. They're necessary when a device that operates within one voltage range is plugged into an electrical system that operates within a different range, and the device didn't come with a universal power adapter. In North America, most appliances operate within the 100-125 volt range. On other continents, 220-240 volts is common.

However, the vast majority of U.S. consumer electronics today (including laptops, netbooks, camcorders, cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones, ebook readers, and GPS devices) come with universal power adapters that can operate within the 100-240 volt range. So if your gadget's power adapter says something like "Input: 100-240VAC," all you'll need is the appropriate power plug adapter to recharge your electronics outside North America. You won't need a converter.

Most gadget power adapters work within the 50Hz or 60Hz frequencies. You're good to go here, too. North America uses the 60Hz frequency standard, while many other countries are on the 50Hz standard.

Keep on Clicking

Mobile Computing News, Reviews, & Tips

1TB Laptop Drive: Western Digital has announced a 1-terabyte laptop hard drive that's priced at $250. But if solid state drives (SSDs) are the future of storage, should you get a laptop with a hard drive or an SSD?

Top 10 Must-Have iPhone Business Apps: Need to edit an Excel file or update your Web site on the bus? If you don't want to lug around your laptop, you can use your Apple smartphone. PC World's Daniel Ionescu profiles ten of the best business-worthy iPhone apps in his recent slide show.

Get Google Voice on Your iPhone: Even though Apple recently banished all Google Voice-related apps from its App Store, it looks like Google Voice might be sneaking back onto the iPhone. New York Times writer David Pogue says that Google is developing a special Google Voice Web page that will offer the same features.

Suggestion Box

Is there a particularly cool mobile computing product or service I've missed? Got a spare story idea in your back pocket? Tell me about it. However, I regret that I'm unable to respond to tech-support questions, due to the volume of e-mail I receive.

Contributing Editor James A. Martin offers tools, tips, and product recommendations to help you make the most of computing on the go. You can follow him on Twitter http://twitter.com/james_a_martin . Jim is also the co-author of Getting Organized in the Google Era, to be published in March 2010. Sign up to have Mobile Computing e-mailed to you each week.

Monday, August 10, 2009

Southern Cal Online School Opens

Southern Cal Online School Opens
August 10, 2009

Online learning provider Advanced Academics, Inc. is partnering with Golden Valley Charter School, Juan Bautista de Anza Online School and the ARA Pivot Charter School to form the SoCal Online School Network, a group of rigorous, high-quality online programs available tuition-free to area students in grades 6-12. Students will be able to earn their California high school diploma completely online or in a classroom environment with teachers and an online curriculum.

The SoCal Online School Network offers online programs for home-schooled students, advanced learners looking for a head start on college, students with health or physical challenges, those needing a flexible schedule in order to work or pursue outside interests and many others. The full-time online programs comply with all California graduation requirements and offer a full middle and high school curriculum, including core, elective and college preparatory courses.

SoCal Online School Network is open to students who live in Los Angeles, Ventura, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, Imperial, Kern, Riverside and Santa Barbara counties. New full-time students may qualify to receive a free laptop computer and an Internet stipend to help them complete their studies.

The SoCal Online School Network offers students a high level of support through certified instructors, student achievement coordinators and 24/7 technical support. Live teachers are available via chat, e-mail or phone from 4 a.m. until 10 p.m. each weekday. All teachers hold bachelor's or master's degrees in their subject area, are state certified and have significant online and traditional classroom experience. Parents can easily communicate with instructors via phone, e-mail or instant messaging and can view real-time snapshots of their child's academic progress.

The student enrollment process begins August 6, and classes start between August 24 and September 18. For more information, call 1-888-704-5498 or go to www.socalonlineschool.com.

Sunday, August 9, 2009

克服OCD-需要知道的10件事

克服OCD需要知道的10件事 - 译言翻译
Ten Things You Need to Know to Overcome OCD (原文)
By: Fred Penzel, Ph.D.

I have been actively involved in the treatment of OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) since 1982, and have treated over 650 cases of the disorder. During that time, I have come to many valuable understandings that I believe are important tools for anyone planning to take on this disorder. Putting together this type of list always seems arbitrary in terms of what to include, but suffice it to say, however it is presented, there is a certain body of information that can make anyone's attempts at recovery more effective. Some of these points may seem obvious, but it has always struck me as remarkable how little of this information my new patients, who are otherwise intelligent and informed people, are seen to possess coming into therapy.

You may not like some of the things on this list, as they may not be what you wish to hear. You don't have to like them. However, if you wish to change, you will need to accept them. The concepts of change and acceptance go hand-in-hand, and define each other. There are some things you will be able to change, and some you will have to accept. It is important to discriminate between the two, so as to not end up misdirecting your efforts.

My list is as follows:

1. OCD is chronic.

This means it is like having asthma or diabetes. You can get it under control and become recovered, but at the present time, there is no cure. It is a potential that will always be there in the background, even if it is no longer affecting your life. The current thinking is that it is probably genetic in origin, and not within our current reach to treat at that level. The things you will have to do to treat it are really controls, and if you don't learn to effectively make use of them throughout your life, you will run the risk of relapse. This means that if you don't use the tools provided in cognitive/behavioral therapy, or if you stop taking your medication (in most cases) you will soon find yourself hemmed in by symptoms once again.

2. Two of OCD's main features are doubt and guilt.

While it is not understood why this is so, these are considered hallmarks of the disorder. Unless you understand these, you cannot understand OCD. In the 19th century, OCD was known as the "doubting disease." OCD can make a sufferer doubt even the most basic things about themselves, others, or the world they live in. I have seen patients doubt their sexuality, their sanity, their perceptions, whether or not they are responsible for the safety of total strangers, the likelihood that that they will become murderers, etc. I have even seen patients have doubts about whether they were actually alive or not. Doubt is one of OCD's more maddening qualities. It can override even the keenest intelligence. It is a doubt that cannot be quenched. It is doubt raised to the highest power. It is what causes sufferers to check things hundreds of times, or to ask endless questions of themselves or others. Even when an answer is found, it may only stick for several minutes, only to slip away as if it was never there. Only when sufferers recognize the futility of trying to resolve this doubt, can they begin to make progress.

The guilt is another excruciating part of the disorder. It is rather easy to make people with OCD feel guilty about most anything, as many of them already have a surplus of it. The often feel responsible for things that no one would ever take upon themselves

3. Although you can resist performing a compulsion, you cannot refuse to think an obsessive thought.

Obsessions are biochemically generated mental events that seem to resemble one's own real thoughts, but aren't. One of my patients used to refer to them as "My synthetic thoughts." They are as counterfeit bills are to real ones, or as wax fruit is to real fruit. As biochemical events, they cannot simply be shut off at will. Studies in thought suppression have shown that the more you try to not think about something, the more you will end up thinking about it paradoxically. The real trick to dealing with obsessions I like to tell my patients is, "If you want to think about it less, think about it more." Neither can you run from or avoid the fears resulting from your obsessions. Fear, too, originates in the mind, and in order to recover, it is important to accept that there is no escape. Fears must be confronted. People with OCD do not stay with the things they fear long enough to learn the truth that is, that their fears are unjustified, and that the anxiety would have gone away anyway on its own, without a compulsion or neutralizing activity.

4. Cognitive/Behavioral Therapy is the best form of treatment for OCD.

Cognitive/Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is considered to be the best form of treatment for OCD. OCD is believed to be a genetically-based problem with behavioral components, and not psychological in origin. Ordinary talk therapy will therefore not be of much help. Reviewing past events in your life, or trying to figure out where your parents went wrong in raising you have never been shown to relieve the symptoms of OCD. Other forms of behavioral treatment, such as relaxation training or thought-stopping (snapping a rubber band against your wrist and saying the word "Stop" to yourself when you get an obsessive thought) are likewise unhelpful. The type of behavioral therapy shown to be most effective for OCD is known as Exposure and Response Prevention (E&RP).

E&RP consists of gradually confronting your fearful thoughts and situations, while resisting the performing of compulsions. The goal is to stay with whatever makes you anxious so that you will develop a tolerance for the thought or the situation, and learn that if you take no protective measures, nothing at all will happen. People with OCD do not stay long enough in feared situations to learn the truth. I try to get my patients to stay with fearful things to the point where a kind of fatigue with the subject sets in. Our goal is to wear the thought out. I tell them, "You can't be bored and scared at the same time." Compulsions, too, are part of the system and must be eliminated for the recovery process to occur. There are two things that tend to sustain compulsions. One is that by doing them, the sufferer is only further convinced of the reality of their obsessions, and is then driven to do more compulsions. The other is that habit also keeps some people doing compulsions, sometimes long after the point of doing them is forgotten. The cognitive component of CBT teaches you to question the probability of your fears actually coming true (always very low or practically nil), and to challenge their underlying logic (always irrational and sometimes even bizarre).

5. While medication is a help, it is not a complete treatment in itself.

It is human nature to always want quick, easy, and simple solutions to life's problems. While everyone with OCD would like there to be a magical medicinal bullet to take away their symptoms, there really is no such thing at this time. Meds are not the 'perfect' treatment, however, they are a 'pretty good' treatment. Generally speaking, if you can get a reduction in your symptoms of from 60 to 70 percent, it is considered a good result. Of course, there are always those few who can say that their symptoms were completely relieved by a particular drug. They are the exception rather than the rule. People are always asking me, "What is the best drug for OCD?" My answer is, "The one that works best for you." I have a saying about meds "Everything works for somebody, but nothing works for everybody." Just because a particular drug worked for someone you know, does not mean that it will work for you.

Relying solely upon meds most likely means that all your symptoms will not be relieved and that you will always be vulnerable to a substantial relapse if you discontinue them. Discontinuation studies (where those who have only had meds agreed to give them up) have demonstrated extremely high rates of relapse. This is because drugs are not a cure, but are rather a control. Even where they are working well, when you stop taking them, your chemistry will soon revert (usually within a few weeks) to its former unhealthy state. Meds are extremely useful as part of a comprehensive treatment together with CBT. They should, in fact, be regarded as a tool to help you to do therapy. They give you an edge by reducing levels of obsession and anxiety. While those with mild OCD can frequently recover without the use of meds, the majority of sufferers will need them in order to be successful. One unfortunate problem with meds is the stigma attached to them. Having to use them does not mean that you are weaker than others only that this is what your particular chemistry requires for you to be successful. You can't always fight your own brain chemistry unaided. Using psychiatric drugs also does not mean that you are 'crazy.' People with OCD are not crazy, delusional, or disoriented. When relieved of their symptoms, they are just as functional as anyone.

6. You cannot and should not depend upon the help of others to manage your anxiety or to get well.

To begin with, and most obviously, you are always with you. If you come to depend upon others to manage your anxiety by reassuring you, answering your questions, touching things for you, or taking part in your rituals, what will you do when they are not around? My guess is that you will likely be immobilized and helpless. The same is true if you only work on your therapy homework when others are nagging or reminding you. No one can want you to recover more than you do. If your motivation is so poor that you cannot get going on your own (assuming that you are not also suffering from an untreated case of depression), then you will have learned nothing about what it takes to recover from OCD. As mentioned at the beginning, since OCD is chronic, you will have to learn to manage it throughout your life. Since you can find yourself on your own at any point, unpredictably, you will always need to be fully independent in managing it.

7. The goal of any good treatment is to teach you to become your own therapist.

In line with the last point, good Cognitive/Behavioral treatment should aim to give you the tools necessary to manage your symptoms effectively. As therapy progresses, the responsibility for directing your treatment should gradually shift from your therapist to you. Whereas the therapist may start out by giving you assignments designed to help you face and overcome your fears, you should eventually learn to spot difficult situations on your own and give yourself challenging homework to do. This will then be a model for how you will need to handle things throughout your life.

8. You cannot rely upon your own intuition in deciding how to deal with OCD.

In using your intuition to deal with what obsessions may be telling you, there is one thing you can always count on it will always lead you in the wrong direction. It is only natural to want to escape or avoid that which makes you fearful. It's instinctive. It really amazes me how common this is. This may be fine when faced by a vicious dog or an angry mugger, but since the fear in OCD results from recurring thoughts inside your head, it cannot be escaped from. The momentary escape from fear that compulsions give, fools people into relying upon them. While compulsions start out as a solution, they soon become the main problem itself as they begin taking over your life. People with OCD never stay with what they fear long enough to find out that what they fear isn't true. Only by doing the opposite of what instinct tells you will you be able to find this out.

9. Getting recovered takes time.

How long does it take? As long as is necessary for a given individual. Speaking from experience, I would say that the average uncomplicated case of OCD takes from about six to twelve months to be successfully completed. If symptoms are severe, if the person works at a slow pace, or if other problems are also present, it can take longer. Also, some people need to work on the rehabilitation of their lives after the OCD is brought under control. Long-term OCD can take a heavy toll on a person's ability to live. It may have been a long time since they have socialized, held a job, or done every day household chores, etc. Some people have never done these things. Returning to these activities may add to the time it takes to finish treatment.

However long it takes, it is crucial to see the process through to the finish. There is no such thing as being 'partially recovered.' Those who believe they can take on only those symptoms they feel comfortable facing, soon find themselves back at square one. Untreated symptoms have a way of expanding to fill the space left by those that have been relieved. When explaining this to my patients, I liken it to getting surgery for cancer. I ask them, "Would you want the surgeon to remove it all, or leave some of it behind?" Or, put another way, it is not a game you can simply drop out of midway with your winnings and expect to keep them.

10. Relapse is a potential risk that must be guarded against.

It has always been a favorite saying of mine that, "Getting well is 50 percent of the job, and staying well is the other 50 percent." We have actually come full-circle back to Point #1, which tells us that OCD is chronic. This tells us that although there is no cure, you can successfully recover and live a life no different from other people. Once a person gets to the point of recovery, there are several things that must be observed if they are to stay that way. As mentioned in Point #7, the goal of proper therapy is to teach people to become their own therapists. It gives them the tools to accomplish this. One of these tools is the knowledge that feared situations can no longer be avoided. The overall operating principle is that obsessions must therefore always be confronted immediately, and all compulsions must be resisted. When people are seen to relapse, it is usually because they avoided an obsessive fear which then got out of hand because they went on to perform compulsions. Another cause can be an individual believing that they were 'cured' and stopping their medication without telling anyone. Unfortunately, the brain doesn't repair itself while on medications, and so when drugs are withdrawn, the chemistry reverts to its former dysfunctional state. Finally, some people may have fully completed their treatment, but have neglected to tell their therapist about all of their symptoms, or else they did not go as far as they needed to in confronting and overcoming the things they did work on. In pursuing treatment for OCD, it is vital to go the distance in tackling all of your symptoms, so as to be prepared for whatever you may encounter in the future.

It is vital to remember that no one is perfect, nor can anyone recover perfectly. Even in well-maintained recoveries, people can occasionally slip up and forget what they are supposed to be doing. Luckily, there is always another chance to reexpose yourself, and so rather than a person beating themselves up and putting themselves down, they can soon regain their balance if they immediately get back on track by turning again and facing that which is feared, and then not doing compulsions.

Finally, because health is the result of living in a state of balance, it is extremely important, post-therapy, to live a balanced life, with enough sleep, proper diet and exercise, social relationships, and productive work of some type.


Fred Penzel, Ph.D. is a licensed psychologist who has been involved in the treatment of OCD and related disorders since 1982. Dr. Penzel is the author of two self-help books, "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders: A Complete Guide to Getting Well and Staying Well" (Oxford University Press, 2000), and "The Hair Pulling Problem: A Complete Guide to Trichotillomania" (Oxford University Press, 2003). He is the executive director of Western Suffolk Psychological Services, in Huntington, New York, and is a frequent contributor to both the OCF newsletter and In Touch, the newsletter of the Trichotillomania Learning Center. He also is a member of the science advisory boards of both the Obsessive-Compulsive Foundation and the Trichotillomania Learning Center. Dr. Penzel can be e-mailed at - penzel@attglobal.net .

Saturday, August 8, 2009

Five Web browsers you've never heard of

Tested: Five Web browsers you've never heard of - Crave at CNET UK
Cloud Computing Guide

Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Chrome -- these are the mainstream browsers you probably know and almost certainly use. But there are dozens of others, and every time we don't write about them in a feature about browsers, we're roundly booed at and berated by their devoted fans.

Now, Microsoft is planning on letting European users of Windows 7, Vista and XP choose which browser they want to use, and there could be up to ten choices. So it's time we devoted some serious attention to the most popular underdog Web browsers to see what all the fuss was about.

Here, tested and prodded, used and abused, are the five browsers with the most vocal fans on CNET UK. Of all the browsers people use to visit this site month to month, not a single one of these five accounts for even as much as 0.1 per cent market share.

If an insight into the world of browsers almost nobody has heard of excites you, prepare to embark on a thrilling journey.

The browsers

1: Shiira (Mac)
2: Arora (Windows, Mac, Linux)
3: K-Meleon (Windows)
4: Camino (Mac)
5: Opera (Windows, Mac, Linux)

For each browser we provide some specific details on how they perform technically. Two key areas are standards compliance, measured by the Acid3 test, and Javascript-rendering abilities, measured by the SunSpider Javascript benchmark.

Standards compliance ensures Web pages work correctly, regardless of what browser you use. And as more and more sites rely on Javascript to deliver advanced navigation and interfaces, a browser's ability to handle it is becoming ever more important. As such, we've benchmarked and measured the skills each browser has in these fields.

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